Glossary

Mesopotamian god of storms. In Assyria and Babylonia, he was one of the most powerful gods in the pantheon, associated with both the life-giving and destructive properties of rain and flood. In some regions of Mesopotamia, such as Suhu, he was, in the 1st millennium, the most important god in the local pantheon. Adad is the Akkadian name of the god. He is called Addu in Amorite and Ishkur (Iškur) in Sumerian.

Formal agreement sworn before the gods. In the Neo-Assyrian era, it could be a treaty agreed between the king of Assyria and his vassals or an oath taken by the people of the country. Most ades are unilateral commitments to the Assyrian king. However, some are international treaties made on an equal footing, such as the agreement entered into by Esarhaddon and Urtaku, king of Elam in 674 BCE.

The agora, in ancient Greek cities, originally served as a meeting place for citizens, and then became the main open space serving as a political, economic and religious centre surrounded by certain public buildings.

The cultivation of domesticated plant species is attested in the Levant as early as the 9^th millennium. There are two types of agriculture: dry, where there is enough rainfall to water crops, and irrigated, where crops need to be supplied with water. Dry agriculture is possible in regions receiving more than 200 mm/m³ of water per year. The driest dry-farming areas could still be supplied with water by irrigation to supplement natural rainfall.

New Year festival in 1st-millennium Mesopotamia. It took place in spring, in the month of Nisan (March/April).

Akkadian was one of the languages spoken and written in Mesopotamia as early as the 3^rd millennium BCE. It is one of the oldest Semitic languages. Its name comes from the city of Akkad founded by Sargon I (2334-2279 BCE). The last texts written in Akkadian date from the 1st century CE.

L'akkadien est l'une des langues parlées et écrites en Mésopotamie, depuis le III^e millénaire av. J.-C. C'est l'une des plus anciennes langues sémitiques. Son nom provient de la ville d'Akkad fondée par Sargon I^er (2334-2279 av. J.-C.). Les derniers textes rédigés en akkadien date du Ier siècle ap. J.-C.

Curved aisle allowing the faithful to walk around a holy place.

Goddess, consort of the sky god Anu.

Anu, or An in Sumerian, was the god of heaven, and the king of the gods in the Mesopotamian pantheon. He was displaced by Enlil in the third millennium and then by Marduk in the pantheon of the 1^st millennium BCE. He was particularly revered in the city of Uruk.

Construction that terminates the choir of a church, either semicircular, canted or flat-walled.

Aramaic is a Semitic language. It emerged in the 1^st millennium BCE in the Near East where its alphabetical writing system spread throughout this period.

Founder of the first Urartian kingdom around Lake Van.

King of Urartu. He took advantage of unrest in Assyria to extend his possessions southwards.

King of Urartu. He acceded to the throne after the suicide of his father Rusa I. He spent part of his reign resisting Cimmerian incursions into the northwest of the Empire.

An oblong slit in the walls of a castle or fortress through which archers fired a bow or crossbow.

Unit of length measurement in the "old" metrology system of the Esagil tablet. Equivalent to 75 cm.

One of the last Assyrian kings. He succeeded his father Ashurbanipal (Aššurbanipal) but died prematurely in 625 BCE and was replaced by his brother Sin-shar-ishkun (Sin-šar-iškun).

Unit of length measurement in the “new" metrology system of the Esagil tablet. Equivalent to 50 cm.

Assyria refers to both the area dominated by Assyrian rulers and a region of upper Mesopotamia between the cities of Nineveh, Erbil and Ashur - the Assyrian triangle.

A dialect of Akkadian spoken and written in northern Mesopotamia (Assyria).

Besieging forces would usually attack the weakest face of a fortress.

The azâmu, in the Esagil tablet, is an architectural term that refers to the corner of a building extending into the Great Court and reducing its surface area. It is connected to another court called Ubshu-ukkinna.

Described in inscriptions as a supreme master, his name in Greek is Zeus Hypsistos. Master of the world and "master of the heavens", he governs the Sun (Malakbel) and the Moon (Aglibol). The iconography reveals that they are closely linked to his person. As master of the heavens, he is symbolised by an eagle with outstretched wings reigning over the stars. He is the leader of a divine triad different from that of Bel.

He is, moreover, the god who brings the rain and therefore water for crops. In a region like Palmyra where caravans were the main source of wealth, he protects his followers - essentially livestock breeders and farmers - from drought. He was also worshipped by an agrarian cult, and frequently depicted holding a bouquet of corn and fruit or a grape vine.

Goddess and consort to the god Baignoires en pierre

Les baignoires en pierre sont une catégorie de mobilier plutôt rare dans le bassin oriental de la Méditerranée : on connaît une dizaine d’exemplaires chypriotes datés du Bronze récent et de l’âge du Fer et au moins trois exemplaires palestiniens datés de l’âge du Fer. La cité d’Ougarit livre ainsi le seul corpus connu pour le Levant septentrional. Cette documentation inédite se révèle particulièrement intéressante dans le cadre de l’étude de l’interculturalité en Méditerranée orientale au Bronze récent et au début de l’âge du Fer.

In the Middle Ages, the bailiff was an agent of the king or lord in a district where he exercised administrative and military power as well as the judicial powers delegated to him.

This term generally refers to an outer fortification over a gateway. It can also describe a lower or outer enceinte around the main enceinte. In the Near East, the barbican is called the bachura.

Province of the land of Sangibutu, bordering Urartu. The province specialised in the breeding of royal (sheep) flocks. The king mentions that the plains were covered in vast enclosures to pen animals. The land of Bari corresponds to the northern shores of Lake Urmia in Iran.

Barley was the most widely grown cereal in Mesopotamia. The first evidence of the cultivation of barley dates from the 6^th millennium BCE.

A large city to the southwest of Babylon. Borsippa’s chief temple was Ezida, the temple of the god Nabu, patron of writing and knowledge.

A large city to the southwest of Babylon. Borsippa’s chief temple was Ezida, the temple of the god Nabu, patron of writing and knowledge.

Portion of certain blocks projecting outwards from a stone or wooden building, to be worked later to varying degrees, with bossage types including rusticated or economical, and tabular. It is also known as bossed-face masonry.

Its purpose is the subject of debate. According to ancient authors, bossage protected the blocks by cushioning the impact of projectiles from siege engines, although bossage was sometimes used to decorate building exteriors. Bossage may also save time when dressing the stone, speeding up the building’s construction.

A corbelled-out construction with crenels, hoardings or machicolations.

Heraldic figure representing a serrated object that could be an instrument for grinding hemp (hemp bray) or a horse bit (horse bray).

A flared fruit basket borne on the head of certain Greek and Roman deities as a symbol of fruitfulness.

Photographic process invented by William Henry Fox Talbot and patented in 1841. This was the first process to make positive prints from paper negatives.

The Caucasus is a mountain range that marks the boundary between Europe and Asia. By extension, the term also refers to a region which straddles three present-day countries: Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. At the time of Jacques de Morgan, the region stood at the crossroads of three empires: Russia to the north, Persia to the southeast, and the Ottoman Empire to the west.

Term for the hall in a temple in which stood the statue of the deity. It was a sacred place where only sanctuary officials who had been ritually purified were allowed to enter. This highly restricted group was called erib biti or “ones who enter the temple".

The end of a text usually separated from the rest of the tablet by a line. The colophon provided important information on where the text fitted into works that could span more than one hundred tablets. The scribe noted the title of the series, chapter, and lastly the section. He could also count the lines. The colophon very often mentioned the name of the tablet’s owner, the scribe who wrote it, if different, the place of composition and, very seldom, the date. It was impossible to find a text in Assyrian and Babylonian libraries without a colophon.

Absent de Mésopotamie, il était importé de régions parfois lointaines : l'Iran et l'Afghanistan à l'époque préhistorique, ou la péninsule d'Oman au III^e millénaire av. J.-C. Au II^e et au I^er millénaire av. J.-C., l'essentiel du minerai de cuivre vient de Chypre ou des monts Taurus (Anatolie). Le cuivre est utilisé pour fabriquer du bronze, en alliage avec de l'arsenic aux époques préhistoriques, et surtout, à partir du III^e millénaire, avec de l'étain. Plus robuste que le cuivre, le bronze vient rapidement remplacer ce dernier pour la fabrication des outils et des armes.

A type of vault or arch in which the brick or masonry courses are built out beyond the one below.

Type of construction forming a projection on the vertical plane of a wall and supported on overhanging corbels or brackets.

This Babylonian literary text was composed at the end of the 2^nd millennium BCE. It tells of the origin of the world and the appearance of gods and men. Initially, there were only two entities: Tiamat, salt water, and Apsû, fresh water. The other gods are descended from them. The epic describes the conflicts that arose between the gods and Marduk’s victory in a cosmic battle against Tiamat. Marduk then used Tiamat's body to create the world, and incited his father Ea to create mankind (in older literary texts, Ea created man). This poem to the glory of Marduk explains his status as king of the gods, which he acquired at the end of the 2^nd millennium BCE, and which mirrored the growing political influence of the city of Babylon in Mesopotamia.

Unit of linear measure based on the length of the arm from the elbow to the tip of the middle finger, generally taken as equal to 50 cm. Cubit dimensions and subdivisions varied over time and according to the units of measure in use.

There was also a "large cubit" equal to approximately 75 cm.

Quarter-sphere vault.

The term cuneiform refers to “wedge-shaped" writing (from the Latin cuneus for wedge), used for many ancient Near Eastern languages. The earliest surviving records of writing are composed of ideograms in the form of drawings or symbols. The drawings were later simplified and transformed into an assembly of strokes, the wedges, as it was easier to press them into the clay using a sharpened reed pen. Cuneiform writing evolved over time. The Sumerians invented this writing system and the Akkadians borrowed it to record their own language. Various languages, Semitic and Indo-European, have been written in cuneiform including Sumerian, Akkadian, Hittite, Hurrian, Elamite and Persian.

Système d’écriture inventée en Mésopotamie du sud et utilisé pour transcrire plusieurs langues dont l’assyrien, le babylonien et l’urartéen. Le cunéiforme s’écrit et se lit de gauche à droite. Les signes sont tracés dans l’argile fraîche à l’aide d’une baguette en roseau taillée en biseau. Un signe signifie soit un mot, soit une syllabe.

Curses on kudurrus were inscribed at the end of the contract to bring misfortune to anyone who challenged the decision or damaged the stela. Curses invoked the power of the gods, who could unleash the forces of evil against anyone who did not respect the terms of the contract. There were also rituals to break curses placed on individuals.

Demons were evil creatures and existed in various forms. Initially seen as agents of the gods, who executed their orders, they became, in the 1^st millennium BCE, autonomous entities, who emerged from the underworld to torment humans.

Malevolent demons were instruments of divine wrath and entered the world to torment mankind. They were held responsible for everyday problems and misfortunes, especially bad luck, illness, and death. Often invisible and intangible, they represent man’s fears.

Office or administrative department in some Islamic systems.

Divination was an important discipline for a variety of professions. At its most basic level, divination was the interpretation of the will of the gods, not only in the future and present, but also in the past, if someone wished to find the cause of a given situation. There were two main types of divination: spontaneous divination, when the gods sent messages to men, and induced divination, when men turned to the gods for answers.

The divinatory priest or soothsayer (barû) was a specialist in hepatoscopy - the observation of the entrails and liver of sacrificed animals, most often sheep. Kings would call on the help of divinatory priests to question the gods before taking a political decision. Moving anticlockwise, the priest made a thorough examination of the liver. Numerous clay models of livers with annotations have been found.

"Doctors" (asû) were a category of exorcists who appear to have had the exclusive right to administer remedies.

Ea, or Enki in Sumerian, was the god of wisdom and technology in the Mesopotamian pantheon. He was Enlil's brother and Marduk's father.

Elam was an ancient region on the Iranian Plateau in the southwest of the country,  bordering southern Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf. Its main town was Susa.

Language spoken in Elam, modern southwest Iran. This agglutinative non-Semitic language does not belong to any large known linguistic group. It has yet to be deciphered, but is partly understood through ancient transcriptions in cuneiform.

Study of variations in the magnetic or electric fields produced by differences in resistivity in the subsurface.

Electromagnetic prospecting is used in archaeology to identify and map the remains of buried constructions, before or in addition to excavation work.

A frontal and true-to-scale view made in projection on a vertical plane.

God of royalty in the ancient Mesopotamian pantheon. 

Epigraphy is the study of inscriptions engraved on non-perishable materials (stone, metal, clay, etc.). It yields information about the political, religious or socio-economic aspects of a society. Compared to archaeological sources, they represent direct testimonies of an event and gives us names, dates, locations, where artefacts and monuments sometimes remain difficult to interpret.

The study of written matter, generally ancient, engraved or sometimes painted on durable materials such as stone, clay, or metal.

One of the capitals of theArgišti I and gradually established itself as the effective capital ofUrarṭu, eclipsing the city of Tušpa, (Van Kalesi in Turkey)

Goddess of the underworld, wife of the god Nergal.

Esagil is the name of the sanctuary - a group of buildings, temples and chapels - dedicated to the god Marduk in Babylon. Its existence is historically attested as early as the 2^nd millennium BCE. Its name means "the temple (é) whose head (sag) is elevated (íl)".

Etememanki is the name of the ziggurat of Babylon. It means “platform of the foundation of Heaven and Earth".

Etememanki is the name of the ziggurat of Babylon. It means “platform of the foundation of Heaven and Earth". 

The evil demons,utukku lemnûtu, were the seven malevolent demons who escorted the god of the underworld, Nergal. Their names were South Wind, Dragon, Panther, Viper, Lion, Whirlwind and Hurricane.

Exorcism was intended to ward off evil by calling on the help of the gods. They were used to treat illnesses, avert bad omens, protect against financial loss and nurture romantic relationships. The exorcist priest was the ashipû (ašipû). Exorcists claimed their knowledge was handed down to them by the gods Ea and Asalluhi.

The role of exorcists is to drive away evil by invoking divine power. Exorcists administered potions to the patient, uttered magical incantations, and performed rituals to cure them. The exorcist also sometimes used herbal remedies.

"Conjuring" priests were specialists in exorcism. The training was long; an exorcist's manual found in Ashur (Aššur) lists the titles of more than one hundred works on exorcism.

Exorcist priests warded off evil by calling on the gods to intervene using ritual gestures and incantations. Exorcism "manuals" have existed since the Sumerian period.

Ère géologique qui a débuté il y a 2,58 millons d'années. 

Ère géologique s'étendant de -66 millon d'années à -2,58 millions d'années. 

Region of the Near East where the more favourable climate made dry and irrigated agriculture possible from the 9^th millennium BCE. It extends from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean coast, sweeping in an arc along the Taurus and Zagros mountains. Plants and animals were first domesticated in this area.

A clasp, buckle or brooch, often made from metal, used to fasten a draped garment.

Thème iconographique souvent représenté en Mésopotamie. Il se caractérise par deux flots jaillissant d'un vase, en symbole de fertilité et d'abondance.

Ensemble d'objets (figurines, textes, tablettes...) déposé dans ou sous un mur lors de la construction d'un édifice important, ayant notamment pour vocation d'apporter une protection symbolique à ce dernier.

Protective genii or spirits are the ancient equivalent of guardian angels. These supernatural beings protected man from evil. They were used in protective rituals and their images were often placed on doors and windows. They were servants of the most powerful gods.

Genii were beneficent creatures who protected mankind. They had the power to fight evil forces. Representations of genii, in the form of statues or amulets, were often placed near doors and windows to ward off evil. One example is the aladlamû, the winged bulls that protected the gates of Assyrian palaces.

This epic tells of the adventures of the king of Uruk, Gilgamesh (Gilgameš), and his search for immortality. It was a celebrated tale in the Mesopotamian world and has been copied many times. Its earliest version dates back to the 2^nd millennium BCE.

Alkaline mixture of carbonates and calcium silicate, possibly coloured with metal oxides. In the 1^st millennium BCE, glazed flat and relief bricks were used in Assyria and Babylonia to enhance architectural decoration or create decorative panels.

The great mosque is the oratory, usually a large building, where the official Friday midday prayer is celebrated. At the end of this congregational prayer, a sermon is preached from the minbar.

This term refers to a tower that is larger than other towers and serves defensive and residential purposes. It is often wrongly called a keep or donjon.

(or Upper Zab) is a tributary on the left bank of the Tigris, which it joins to the south of Mosul. It rises in Turkey near Lake Van and runs for roughly 400 km. Its basin spans more than 40,000 km².

Name used to refer to a people in sources from the 3^rd and 2^nd millennia, and a geographical area located in the mountainous regions of northern Zagros.

Mountainous land neighbouring the land of Musasir (Muṣaṣir). 

God originating from the land and the city of Musasir (Muṣaṣir), Haldi (Ḫaldi) was initially a deity linked to the mountains and chthonian forces. The conquest and integration of the region of Musasir into the Urartian orbit by Ishpuini I (Išpuni I) (830/25-810/5 BCE) propelled Haldi to the head of the pantheon. He is constantly mentioned in royal and monumental inscriptions, where he was associated with the monarchy, together with Teisheba (Teišeba), god of thunderstorms, and Shivini-Artin, god of the sun, forming the Urartian triad. He also occupied a prominent place in the religious and political calendar: several feasts were celebrated in his name throughout the year, and he was the deity who received the greatest number of offerings, animals (sheep, goats and horses), precious objects and especially weapons. God of the dynasty, the spread of his cult depended on the effectiveness of royal policy. From his temple inMusasir, he gave his consent to the candidate for the throne ofBiainili(Urartu). As the dynasty grew in strength, Haldi became more warlike. He spearheaded an expansionist policy, led troops into battle, and many conquests were made in honour of his greatness. There are many analogies between Haldi and his opponent, the god Ashur (Aššur), the latter obviously partly inspired the role played by Haldi in Urartu. In many respects, the two gods shared a common destiny; originating in northern Mesopotamia, they went from being local gods, linked to the mountains, to become national gods and standard bearers of imperialist policy. 

The Hanging Gardens of Babylon are one of the seven wonders of the world according to ancient Greek authors. No trace of these gardens has been found in Babylon, either in the texts or in Neo-Babylonian art. They may actually have been in Nineveh, where the creation of royal gardens is well documented.

The god Hanpa is the father of the demon Pazuzu.

Scholar, scribe of the king and father of Nabu-shallim-shunu (Nabu-šallim-šunu), the scribe of the Eighth Campaign of Sargon II.

Corbelled-out wooden gallery erected on top of fortifications such as a tower or curtain wall to direct the field of fire downwards.

In architecture, an underground chamber or vault.

A hypostyle, in architecture, is a building with a ceiling supported by columns.

Unit of surface measurement in the "old" metrology system of the Esagil tablet. Equivalent to 8,100 m².

Lord of the land of Massi, one of the kingdoms in the land of Mannaeans, and vassal of Assyria. He is the father ofIzā and Ullusunnu. Sargon II led a campaign in 719 to lend him military support.

Initially rare and hard to obtain, iron was regarded as a precious metal in the 3^rd and 2^nd millennia. It came into much wider use in the 1^st millennium BCE in Khorsabad, which had a hoard of 106 metric tons of iron.

King of Urartu, he is considered the true founder of the empire. He conquered large swathes of territory in the north of Assyria, including the land of Musasir (Muṣaṣir) and the land of the Mannaeans. Under his reign, the god Haldi (Ḫaldi) became the major deity of the Urartian pantheon.

Goddess of love and war in the Mesopotamian pantheon. Daughter of the sun god Shamash (Šamaš).

Name of the Assyrian governor of the city of Arrapha, who gave his name to the Assyrian year, corresponding to the date 714 BCE.

An architectural term of Persian origin for a high vaulted room or hall with one end open to a courtyard.

Lord of the land of Massi, one of the kingdoms in the land of Mannaeans, and brother of Ullusunnu. He succeeded his father Iranzû and became the vassal of Assyria. He was defeated in the first battle of Mount Wa'ush (Wa'uš) in 716 BCE and his body thrown into a ravine.

Main entrance door of the Esagil sanctuary, leading to the processional way and the Ishtar Gate. The king would enter through this door to worship the god Marduk during important ceremonies, and it was through this door that the god would leave the temple during processions. The Ka-Sikilla enclosure is probably a space in the temple square.

Assyrian city founded by Shalmanesar I (1263-1234) and then chosen by Ashurnasirpal II (883-859) as his capital. It covered 357 hectares and contained an Acropolis where the palace and temple were located along with a vast arsenal palace.

A medieval term for the symbolic centre of a lord’s manor. It is sometimes incorrectly used to refer to the main tower. The main tower is known as the “great tower” or simply “the tower”.

Babylonian calendar month: November-December.

A stela in Kassite Mesopotamia bearing inscriptions describing grants of land. Divine symbols were placed around the text to protect landholdings from rival claimants. Kudurrus were kept in temples.

Demon who brought death and disease to pregnant women and newborns. Lamashtu was originally a goddess, but she was stripped of her status by the other gods for asking to eat human flesh.

The Lamashtu (Lamaštu) was a demon that primarily attacked pregnant women and infants, whom she sought to devour. She was a fallen goddess. The gods banished her from their ranks after she demanded to eat human flesh. Amulets to repel Lamashtu have been found in large numbers, particularly in Assyria.

Initially a female protective deity, the lamassu was also, in the 1^st millennium, a guardian genius, or protective spirit. In Assyrian palaces, it most often took the form of a human-headed winged bull.

Area reserved for toilets. Also known as the garderobe.

Cette période géologique recouvre la fin du Tertaire et le début du Quaternaire, entre -5,2 millions d'années et -0.,9 millons d'années.

Période de l’Histoire qui rassemble le Néolithique et le Chalcolithique. Elle se situe entre l’époque des chasseurs-cueilleurs nomades du Paléolithique et les sociétés à écriture de l’Antiquité.

Kingdom of Lihyân, whose capital was Dadan (al-Khuraybah), near AlUla, from the fourth to the second century BC.

The demon Lilû was originally a storm demon. He later represented the incubus, the demon of the night that lay upon women in their sleep. The female equivalents of the Lilû were the succubae, the demons Lilîtu and Ardat-Lilî.

(Plural: loculi)

Cell in a columbarium.

A corbelled-out gallery at the top of a fortification with holes at its base for defensive observation of the enemy or offensive discharging of projectiles and burning materials on to attackers.

The Federation of Malaysia is a Southeast Asian country to the south of Thailand. Its capital is Kuala Lumpur. On the sea route between India and China, the country rapidly became an important trading centre.

During the 18^th and 19^th centuries, the region gradually came under British rule. Its economic growth was partly due to the production of tin and rubber. Refusing to allow their subjects to be employed by the British, the Malay sultans imported labour from India and China, which explains the ethic diversity of its inhabitants.

A military device used in the Middle Ages to throw stones and other missiles.

 Conglomerate of kingdoms established along the eastern side of the Zagros Mountains and on the plateaus south of Lake Urmia. The land of the Mannaeans was composed of several kingdoms and provinces, including the land of Missi, the land of Andia, the land of Zikirtu, the land of Washdish, and the land of Zaranda, the northernmost of the Mannaean kingdoms. The land of the Mannaeans was the subject of a bitter struggle between Assyria and Urartu. It was the main theatre of military operations during the Eighth Campaign. 

Marduk was the most powerful god in the pantheon of the city of Babylon. Originally a minor agricultural deity, Marduk owed his promotion to the political power gained by Babylon under the Hammurabi (18^th century BCE). Written in the late 2^nd millennium BCE, the creation epic recounts how Marduk became king of the gods after defeating the primordial goddess Tiamat.

Mesopotamia was a patriarchal society and when a bride married she joined her husband's family. Usually, the marriage was decided by two families, and gave rise to transfers of property, including the dowry and dower and various gifts. Numerous marriage contracts have been discovered. Although the husband usually managed the family property, it may have been entrusted to his wife in his absence. For example, the wives of Assyrian merchants managed the family business when their husbands travelled to Anatolia for trade.

A service forming part of the traditional Divine Office of the Western Christian Church, originally said at or after midnight.

The Medes were an ancient Iranian people organised into chieftaincies and then a united kingdom. The Median capital was Ecbatana. In the 7^thcentury BCE, the Median king Cyaxares allied with the Babylonians against the Assyrians. He took part in the conquest of Assyria, taking Ashur, Kalhu (modern Nimrud), Nineveh, and Arbela (modern Erbil).

King of Urartu, son of Argishti I (Argišti I). He is known mainly from bilingual inscriptions found in the mountains of southeast Turkey. An energetic sovereign, he continued his father's policy of expansion into eastern and central Anatolia and targeted the Syrian possessions of Assyria.

Portion of a parapet between crenels.

In Mesopotamia, metal was used for the production of tools and weapons, but also figurines, amulets, and jewellery, as well as ceremonial pieces. Gold and silver were rare but in use since ancient times. From the 4^th millennium BCE, mostly copper was used and then bronze, and iron from the 1^st millennium BCE.

Metal could be hammered into the desired shape, or cast by pouring molten metal into a mould. Moulds were single- or double-sided. Small parts were also produced using the lost wax process. Molten metal was poured into a fired clay mould created by means of a wax model which melts and drains away.

Lord of Zikirtu and Andia, provinces of the land of the Mannaeans. He was used to implement Urartian policies in the region and took part in both battles of Mount Wa'ush (Wa'uš), in 716 and 714, alongside Rusa I. Vassal and supporter of the Urartian dynasty, he was involved in multiple actions against Assyria and its vassals. For Sargon II, one of the aims of the Eighth Campaign was to put an end to his actions in the land of the Mannaeans.

Period during which the powerful Assyrian state emerged and gained independence under Ashur-uballit I (1365-1330 BCE). The Assyrian state expanded its territory westward and southward during the reign of Adad-nirari I (1307-1275 BCE), a process completed when Tukulti-Ninurta I (1244-1208 BCE) captured Babylon. After his death, Assyria was plunged into a crisis and only recovered in the late 12^th century under Tiglath-Pileser I (1114-1076 BCE). Repeated clashes with the Aramaeans caused Assyria to lose the territories it had conquered at the end of the 2^nd millennium.

This term refers to a form of cuneiform writing and of the Akkadian language specific to southern Mesopotamia during the second half of the 2^nd millennium BCE. It also refers to the political period from the fall of the first Babylonian dynasty (1595 BCE) to the beginning of 1^st millennium BCE.

Architectural and decorative element indicating the direction of prayer, placed in the qibla wall of a prayer room.

A military campaign is a large-scale, long-term movement by an army with a warlike aim. Most often, kings used military operations to collect tribute, seize booty, crush revolts, and support vassals who recognised their authority. Campaigns also aimed to extend imperial territory by systematically annexing defeated regions.

Pillar or other marker placed on roads at intervals of one Roman mile.

Pulpit for preaching in a prayer room to the right of the mihrab. The imam who leads the prayer mounts the minbar to deliver the sermon during the Friday midday prayer, and prays for the reigning sovereign.

The Minaean kingdom (also called Ma'in) was one of the main kingdoms of South Arabia (now Yemen) and South-West Arabia in the first millennium BC.

Soldier who specialised in digging underground tunnels and burning their supporting props in order to collapse the base of a building, tower or portion of a curtain wall.

The mulugu was not the wife's dowry. It was a gift given to her by her father in addition to her dowry. Unlike the dowry, which was managed by the husband, the mulugu remained at the wife’s disposal.

Ornamental motif typical of Islamic architecture. Also known as honeycomb vaulting.

Opening in the arch of a gateway or ceiling of a passage through which defenders would drop objects.

Musasir (Muṣaṣir) refers to both a country and a city in northeast Assyria. Musasir very probably corresponds to the present-day village of Mudjesir in Iraqi Kurdistan, not far from the Iranian border. The city was home to the temple of the god Haldi and the seat of a principality acquired from the Urartian empire. It was taken and sacked in the first days of November 714 by the armies of Sargon II.

Unit of surface measurement in the "old" metrology system of the Esagil tablet. Equivalent to 81 m².

There were many myths in Mesopotamian culture. They took the form of hymns, tales and epics. Among the most famous are the Gilgamesh Epic, the Erra Epic, the Descent of Ishtar to the Underworld, Atra-hasîs, the Myth of Anzû, the Etana Epic, and the Creation Epic.

Nomads of Arab origin who became caravan traders and engaged, since the end of the fourth century B.C, in the trade of myrrh, incense, and other aromatics which were transported from present-day Yemen. The Nabataean kingdom lasted until 106 AD., when it was annexed by Emperor Trajan and became the Roman province of Arabia.

Mesopotamian god of writing.

Son of Marduk in the Babylonian pantheon.

Assyrian scribe, son of Harmakki and scribe of the Eighth Campaign of Sargon II.

Name given to Urartu in the cuneiform sources of the 2^nd millennium. The territories of the Nairi are located between the lakes of Van and the western shores of Lake Urmia. The Eighth Campaign crossed through Nairi territory.

This Akkadian term refers to a stela, which could be used as a medium for writing.

Nebuchadnezzar I occupied the throne of Babylon between 1126 and 1105 BCE. He is famous for his crushing victory against the Elamites, and recovering the statue of the god Marduk which had been stolen and taken to Susa. It was during his reign that the god Marduk was placed at the head of the Mesopotamian pantheon and Babylon became the religious capital of Mesopotamia. The Creation Epic, the mythological text that explains Marduk’s supremacy, was written during this period.

An early form of the cuneiform writing system and the Akkadian language. Neo-Babylonian also refers to the political period of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, from 626 to 539 BCE, and more generally to the whole of the 1^st millennium BCE.

Neolithisation refers to the long process (nearly five millennia) during which a series of social, technical, economic and cultural changes took place. Starting from a way of life based on a predatory economy (hunter-gatherers), these changes led to the emergence of sedentary societies whose economy is based on food production (agriculture and livestock).

God of the infernal regions, lord of the underworld. He was venerated in Kutha, a city near Babylon, in the sanctuary of Emeslam.

The New Year, usually in spring, was celebrated with several days of religious ceremonies and processions. The New Year festival (akitu) is attested in Mesopotamia from the late 3^rd millennium BCE to the Achaemenid period.

Unit of length measurement used in the Esagil tablet. According to the "old" measurement system, 1 nindanu = 9 metres; according to the "new" measurement system, 1 nindanu = 6 metres.

Assyrian city occupied as early as the 8^th millennium BCE. Sennacherib (704-681) made it his capital and extensively rebuilt the city. Nineveh has two tells, Kouyunjik, the original site, and Nebi Yunus, on which Esarhaddon (680-669) built an arsenal.

God and minister of Enlil.

Language spoken in Persia from the 6^th to the 4^th century BCE. It belongs to the Iranian language group and is written in cuneiform. A trilingual inscription in Old Persian, Akkadian, and Elamite on a rocky outcrop in Behistun, Iran, made it possible to decipher Old Persian and then Akkadian.

Stone slab placed edgeways (revealing its narrowest edge) at the base of a wall. Some orthostats in Assyrian palaces were extremely tall and decorated with carved reliefs.

Grain capacity measurement according to surface area following the “new" measuring system on the Esagil tablet: 1 pânu = 6 sûtu = 2700 m²

Having a quadrangular ground plan surrounded by columns on all four sides.

Philology is the linguistic, historical and literary study of an ancient language. Its practice saw a significant increase in the 19^th century. This coincided with the development of archaeology with the aim of better understanding ancient peoples.

A pointed arch is formed by two symmetrical half-arches resting on each other.

A pointed vault rests on a series of pointed arches.

A wooden grille, usually strengthened with iron plates, that can slide down grooves on either side of a gateway. Used to rapidly close an entrance, it could be raised or lowered by means of winches and counterweights.

A covered passage with a vault supported by columns or arcades on at least one side, often attached to a building and giving onto an open space.

A small side or rear door to the castle.

Biblical iconographic theme taken from an episode in the life of Jesus recounted in the Gospel according to Luke: his parents present him in the Temple of Jerusalem, where he is received by Simeon who announces him as the "Master" and "the light that will bring revelation to the Gentiles".

A Greek term meaning "space in front of the temple" , referring to the entrance or vestibule of a temple. The opening of the pronaos was often composed of a colonnade.

A facade composed of a row of free-standing columns.

Watercourse, one of the three rivers marking the southern limits of the land of Ayadi

Grain capacity measurement according to surface area following the “old" measuring system on the Esagil tablet: 1 qû = 3 1/3 musharu = 270 m²

According to the “new" measurement system of the Esagil tablet: 1 qû = 1/6 sūtu = 75 m²

Capacity-surface unit of measurement in the "old" metrology system of the Esagil tablet. Equivalent to 270 m².

A horizontal band in an artwork divided into decorative images or panels. Assyrian carved decorations are occasionally composed of several superimposed registers.

Volcanic mountain which rises to an altitude of 3,707 metres in the north of Iran and south of the city of Tabriz. It is probably the ancient Mount Wa'ush (Wa'uš).

King of Assyria. During a military campaign in northern Assyria, he mentions the land ofUruatri, bordering Lake Van. This is the first occurrence of the term Urartu in Assyrian inscriptions.

King of Assyria. He led two victorious military campaigns against Urartu, an area still named the Land of Nairi. 

(= Salmanasar V).

King of Assyria (726-722). He is probably the brother of Sargon II and Sîn-ahu-usur (Sîn-aḫu-uṣur). He was overthrown in 722 by a revolt of urban elites.

Province of Urartu whose territories extended to the Armenian plateaus. The province had many fortress towns which rose above the mountain peaks of the Arzabia Mountains. The Sangibutu was used as a proxy territory for the expansionist policies of the Urartians in the land of the Mannaeans.

Soldier. Unlike miners, sappers would dig directly at the base of buildings to cause them to collapse or open a breach.

King of Urartu, he was a contemporary of Salmanazar III. He managed to consolidate the kingdom founded by Aramu.

King of Urartu. He fought several times against Tiglath-Phalasar III who besieged him all the way to his own capital, Tushpa. Despite a handful of military setbacks against Assyria, his reign coincided with a period of economic expansion for the Urartian Empire. He was the father of King Rusa I, his successor.

King of Ashur (Aššur) from the dynasty of Puzur-Assur.

King of Sumer and Akkad. His reign had a considerable influence on the policies adopted by many Mesopotamian rulers.

The Second Dynasty of Isin takes its name from the city of Isin, where it originated. This dynasty ruled over Babylonia at the end of 2^nd millennium BCE, and its most famous king was Nebuchadnezzar I.

Greek king, general and then successor to Alexander in the East. He founded the Seleucid kingdom.

Named after Shem, son of Noah in the Bible, the Semitic language group is divided into several subgroups: Akkadian (Eastern Semitic); North-Western Semitic languages (Ugaritic, Aramaic, and Canaanite, with Hebrew being part of the latter); and South Semitic languages (Arabic, South Arabian, and Ethiopian).

The shahûru is the floor where the temple is located at the top of the Ziggurat, in the Esagil tablet.

Protective genius. As a masculine spirit, Shedu represents vitality and reproductive potency.

Capacity-surface unit of measurement in the “old" metrology system of the Esagil tablet. Equivalent to 81,000 m².

The first mountain crossed by the troops of Sargon II, marking a natural and fantastical frontier between Assyria and the territories targeted by the Eighth Campaign. According to information provided by Sargon II, the army crossed the plains south of Erbil and then headed towards the Birah-Magrun massif.

The main town in the land of Massi, one of the kingdoms in the land of the Mannaeans, Sirdakka was a stronghold controlled by Ullusunnu. Sargon II gathered his vassals there for a banquet during which he pledged to remove the Urartian threat.

Vessel usually fitted with a handle.

Along with drawing, photographing and plaster casting, copying by squeezes is one of the methods, still used by epigraphists, to achieve an accurate reproduction of an inscription incised in stone, metal, wood or clay. The squeezes reproduce in negative and in the exact dimensions the original inscription. Resistant and easily transportable, they represent faithful copies of the inscription and are often better protected than the original inscriptions.

A dialect of Akkadian used by Mesopotamian scholars and scientists from the late 2^nd millennium and throughout the 1^st millennium in Assyria and Babylonia. The grammatical forms of Standard Babylonian were initially borrowed from Paleo-Babylonian. It was standardised in the early 1^st millennium and became the language of writing for literary and learned works. It was also used in Assyria for royal inscriptions and annals.

In classical architecture, the substructure on which a building stands.

Name given to the land of Zaranda in Assyrian sources.

The suhatu, in the Esagil tablet, is an architectural element interpreted as a space associated with the Arkabinnu Gate, which is part of the Small Court of Ishtar and Zababa and increases its surface area.

The first known language in Mesopotamia, it was spoken by the Sumerian people who occupied southern Iraq in the 3^rd millennium BCE. The cuneiform writing system was used to write the Sumerian language and then Akkadian. Sumerian is not related to any other known language. It was "agglutinating" because it works by adding prefixes and suffixes on an invariable root. Although Sumerian ceased to be a living language in Mesopotamia from the 2^nd millennium BCE, it was still employed in some literary and scholarly texts after this date, and some Sumerian ideograms were also still in use.

Unit of length measurement in the “new" metrology system of the Esagil tablet. Equivalent to 30 m.

Susa is located in the southwest of present-day Iran. It has been occupied since 4200 BCE, and remains from the site provide important evidence  for the history and way of life of its population up to the Islamic period. In the 19^th century, the site was excavated by William Loftus, and then by Marcel and Jane Dieulafoy, before the arrival of Jacques de Morgan. 

Capacity measurement unit according to surface area in the “new" metrology system of the Esagil tablet. Equivalent to 450 m².

A process by which two or more religious beliefs or doctrines were fused into one; an attempt to reconcile different beliefs into a new one that synthesizes them.

(“Drinking horn” in Greek) Vase with a hole at the lower end from which liquid flows. In the ancient Near East, rhytons were often shaped like an animal from whose mouth liquid flowed.

Rituals are sets of gestures and words spoken in religious ceremonies and which follow strict rules. Only specialists could perform these rituals.

Name of a city in the Soran district of Iraqi Kurdistan, a river tributary of the Lower Zab, and a pass through the northern chain of the Zagros Mountains, between the Iranian Plateau and the plains of northern Mesopotamia. The city is sometimes identified as the ancient Musasir (Muṣaṣir). 

King of Urartu. Rusa I(Ursâ) was the son of Sarduri I and the father of Argishti II, his successor. On the death of his father, his accession was challenged, and he had to secure the throne by force, as seems to be indicated by the inscription on the chariot he consecrated to the god Haldi, in the temple of Musasir. He was most probably from the city of Arbu, northwest of Lake Urmia. He made a major contribution to the region by ordering hydraulic works to enable the royal city of Ulhu to benefit from an efficient irrigation system. He also built a palace and a royal garden and owned an impressive building in which he kept large quantities of wine. Despite a series of dramatic events in the last year of his reign, his rule marked the high point of Urartian military power. Rusa I was the main adversary of Sargon II and the only ruler in the Near East able to put up serious resistance to him. In 720, he began to extend his sovereignty over the land of the Mannaeans by breaking the system of alliances set up by the Assyrians. He won his first victory in 716, at Mount Wa’ush, and took several strongholds in northern Assyria. In the late summer of 714, the second battle of Mount Wa'ush turned to disaster for Rusa I, who fled to the north of his empire. Shortly before the end of 714, or even at the beginning of 713, he was again defeated by a Cimmerian army. The capture of Musasir and the violation of the temple of Haldi, together with his two defeats in 714, led Rusa Ito kill himself using his own sword in the first months of the year 713.

Chief Treasurer-masennuof Sargon II. He was entrusted with the 714 campaign tablet after its inscription. He played an important economic role in the founding of Dûr-Sharrukîn.

Sloping base used to strengthen a fortification.

Mesopotamian goddess, wife of Nabû in the Babylonian pantheon.

The Arabic word tell refers to an artificial mound formed by superimposed habitation layers, with each new occupation built on the ruins of the previous one. During excavations, archaeologists know that the lowest levels are the oldest and the upper levels the most recent. 

In Greek Antiquity, the temenos is the precinct or enclosure of a sanctuary, the holy ground often containing the altars and temples.

The thalamos (Latin) or adyton (Greek) is a sacred chapel where the statues of deities were placed. Located in the <>cella, it is elevated, divided into three parts and used for religious purposes.

(= Tiglath-phalasar III). King of Assyria (745-727). He brought an end to more than a century of Urartu expansion. He launched a particularly ambitious military campaign that led him to the capital Tushpa, on the shores of Lake Van, to which he laid siege. He radically reorganised the Assyrian empire by transforming former vassal kingdoms into provinces. In 729-728 BCE, he ascended the throne of Babylon, referred to as the reign of Pulu.

All the titles borne by a person or house.

Also known as an emporium. Centre of commerce outside the direct sphere of influence of the entity on which it depends.

One of the capitals of the Urartu Empire, now Van Kalesi, citadel of Van (Turkey). The city was chosen as the centre of the kingdom of Urartu by Sarduri I. Located on the shores of Lake Van, it became the imperial capital at the end of the 9^th century, and remained so until the foundation around 782(?) BCE by Argishti I of the city of Erebuni. The city of Tushpa was besieged by Tiglath-Phalasar III in the middle of the 8^th century.

The royal city of Urartu most probably located north of Lake Urmia, in the plains of Khoy. Rusa I made extensive changes to the city and its surrounding area and built a sumptuous palace with a garden planted with fragrant trees.

Lord of the land of Massi, then raised to the rank of king of the land of the Mannaeans by Sargon II. Ullusunnu was the son of Iranzu and the brother of Izâ, whom he succeeded after his tragic death in 716 at the battle of Mount Wa'ush (Wa'uš). As a vassal, Ullusunnu was vulnerable to constant pressure from Urartu and its allies. One of the aims of the 714 campaign was to provide him with military support. He was symbolically reinstated at the head of the land of the Mannaeans at the Sirdakka banquet and his son was sent to Assyria to be raised there.

The Arab family from Mecca from which this dynasty originated belonged to the tribe of the Prophet Muhammad. First caliphate dynasty to rule the Islamic empire from 660 to 749.

The Urartian language was written using the cuneiform system borrowed from the Assyrian syllabary. It is a language mainly attested to in bilingual royal inscriptions, where it appeared in the 8^th century BCE, alongside the Assyrian language. Its geographical origin has not been determined with any certainty and it may have arisen in the Caucasus. However, Urartologists believe it may be related to the Hurrian language, which was in use in southeast Turkey, Syria and northern Iraq during the 2^nd millennium BCE, and to Kassite language.

Name used by the Assyrians and now by historians to refer tothe Biainili Empire, a major political power that dominated the land between eastern Turkey and the western plateaus of Azerbaijan, between the 9^th century and the end of the 6^th century BCE.

Salt lake in northwest Iran. Its basin has an area of 5,200 km². It is 145 km long and 56.5 km wide. It was the main theatre of operations during the Eighth Campaign.

Lord of the land of Musasir (Muṣaṣir). Urzana was portrayed by Sargon II as a mountain savage who did not respect the oaths taken to the gods. He embodied the deceitful enemy who had turned away from Assyria and placed his trust in Rusa the Urartian. He did not obey the orders of Ashur (Aššur), constantly betrayed his oaths taken to the gods and did not recognise the legitimate authority of Sargon II. However, Urzana remained an important authority locally and was sometimes referred to as the king of Musasir in documents. He reigned over a territory disputed between Assyria and Urartu (Urarṭu), but in addition to his political responsibilities, he was also in charge of organising the cult of the god Haldi (Ḫaldi). Letters tell us that he hosted many leading Urartian and Assyrian figures. The cult of Haldi did not exclusively concern the Urartians; the temple welcomed both the king of Urartu and his counterpart and rival, the king of Assyria. Urzana travelled extensively across the region and reported regularly on his activities. He informed the Assyrians of the defeat of Rusa I at the hands of the Cimmerians, for example. He was not entirely subject to Urartian power, but was often caught in the crossfire, and only managed to maintain a semblance of independence through skilful diplomacy.

Salt lake of volcanic origin in eastern Turkey. It currently covers an area of 3,700 km². It is the geographic heart of the confederation of the Biainili, Van territory, in Urartian. 

Mountain located in the land of Washdish (Wašdiš). In 714, during the second battle of Mount Wa'ush (Wa'uš), Assyrian troops led by Sargon II clashed with the Urartian army commanded by Rusa I. Mount Wa'ush is probably the present-day Mount Sahand.

A stronghold marking the southern border of the Urartu Empire and the frontier between the province of Ayadi and the northern territories of the land of Nairi. The fortress is located in a highly strategic position and housed the relief garrisons and supplies of the Urartian armies. Sargon II admired this outstanding building which he took by surprise.

Land and province of the land of the Mannaeans, between the land of Zikirtu in the south and the land of Zaranda in the north. It was a province that had recently been incorporated into Urartu. Mount Wa'ush (Wa'uš) is in the land of Washdish. 

Lord of Nairi (southwest region of Lake Urmia). He willingly travelled more than 120 kilometres from his capital city to pledge allegiance to Sargon II on the march back to Assyria.

Warrior god. Husband of Ishtar (Ištar) in the pantheon of the city of Kish (Kiš).

The Zagros Mountains stretch over more than 1,500 km from northwest Iran to the Strait of Hormuz, rising to over 4,000 metres. The chain marks a natural border between the plains of Mesopotamia and the Iranian Plateau. During the Eighth Campaign, Sargon II and his troops crossed the northern part of the Zagros Mountains.

Province of the land of the Mannaeans incorporated into Urartu and bordering the province of Sangibutu. The land of Zaranda forms a narrow pass and marks the northern limit of the land of the Mannaeans.

Stepped pyramidal tower characteristic of Mesopotamian religious architecture of the 2^nd and 1^st millennia BCE. On its summit was a small shrine which was also used to observe the stars and probably as an intermediary space between the gods and man.

Province of the land of the Mannaeans bordering the province of Andia. This particularly active kingdom was an important proxy for Urartian policies in the land of the Mannaeans. The first military operations of the Eighth Campaign targeted Zikirtu.

Région d'Oman, à la frontière entre Oman et le Yémen.